Animal health

Introduction

Animal health includes the use of measures like vaccinations, dosing and dips to safeguard farming enterprises. These precautions amount to less than 7% of the farmer’s total expenditure. To avoid essential preventative treatment and spending is to act unwisely. Animal diseases and parasites are bad news for the economy, to say nothing of human and animal health.

All animal health products should be used strictly according to label instructions. Even then, results may vary according to the disease and the stage of the disease at which treatment is applied. The earlier that treatment is administered (during the course of the disease) the better will be the results.

No vaccine can give 100% protection, but the involvement of a veterinarian plus the correct use of registered products with demonstrated effectiveness and safety could only be to the benefit of animals and producers alike.

International business environment

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Zoonoses: diseases of livestock that can affect humans

The word zoonosis has its origins in the Greek zoon, meaning animal, and nosos meaning disease. In 1959, the World Health Organisation Expert Committee on Zoonoses, defined zoonoses as “those diseases and infections that are naturally transmitted between vertebrate animals and man”.

Zoonotic diseases are an occupational hazard for all those who work with livestock, including farmers and their workers, veterinary staff, those in the abattoir and dairy industries and, ultimately, the consumers of animal products like meat, dairy products and eggs.

Preventing the transfer of zoonotic diseases from animals to humans rests on three pillars. The first of these is keeping animals healthy through good management, vaccinations and parasite control. The second pillar is personal hygiene and attention to healthy working conditions in the livestock industry – particularly details like the provision of good ventilation and accessible ablution blocks. The third pillar is food hygiene, maintaining a cold chain and the inspection and quality control of animal products from the farm to the table. If these three pillars are kept in place, the chance or risk of catching any disease from an animal is very low – you are much more likely to catch diseases from other people! Prevention is better than cure; however, if you suspect you have a zoonotic disease, it is advisable to consult a medical practitioner as soon as possible.

Further details on the symptoms and treatment of zoonotic diseases are obtainable on the World Health Organisation (www.who.int) and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (www.cdc.gov) websites.

The following table, used courtesy of Prof CME McCrindle (Faculty of Veterinary Science of the University of Pretoria), summarises the most important zoonotic diseases of livestock and gives some idea of how to prevent them being transmitted.

DiseaseHow it is transmitted Symptoms in humansPrevention
AnthraxContact with blood, skins or meat of diseased cattle, sheep, goats and pigsSkin, lung and intestinal forms; may be fatal if untreated.Vaccinate cattle every year. Notify state vet if there are sudden deaths in livestock. Do not slaughter and eat sick animals.
Avian InfluenzaContact with diseased birds infected with the virulent strainInfluenza-like symptoms; often fatal in peopleDo not handle dead birds of any species without gloves, face-masks and protective clothing.
BotulismConsumption of meat or other foods contaminated with the spores or toxins of Clostridium botulinumFlaccid paralysis of muscles; it progresses until the patient cannot sit or stand, and eventually is unable to breathe.Vaccinate cattle. Food hygiene and cooking at high temperatures.
Bovine brucellosisInhalation of or contact with blood or birth fluids of infected cattle; drinking unpasteurised milkAcute symptoms look like malaria or influenza; chronic intermittent fever, joint problemsVaccination of heifers, regular testing of cattle herd. Hygienic handling of aborted material or afterbirths. Pasteurise milk.
Bovine tuberculosis and human tuberculosisInhalation of droplets from coughing cows; drinking unpasteurised milkNodules on the skin and in the lymphnodes; chronic weight loss, severe cough with bloody phlegmWorkers in dairies must be checked regularly for TB. Dairy cattle must be tested regularly for TB. Pasteurise milk.
 BSEConsumtion of brain, lymphnodes or spinal tissue of affected cattleChronic nervous symptoms that become worse; always fatal as it is incurablePrevent the disease coming into South Africa. Test cattle that die after showing nervous symptoms.
 Bacterial wound infectionsCuts and wounds that are exposed to animal manure, pus and would infections of animalsAbscesses, gangrene and “blood poisoning”Wash and disinfect all wounds immediately using running water. Cover wounds if working with animals, meat or milk.
 Bubonic plagueBites by rat fleas “Bubon” forms in inguinal lymphnode, fatal pneumonia Rat control. Control fleas on animals – including goats, dogs and cats.
 ColibaccilosisConsumption of food, water or other material containing the organism Escherichia coliSevere acute gastroenteritis; if caused by Ecoli serotype 0157, severe bloody gastro-enteritis and organ failureFood hygiene. Clean drinking water (prevent it being polluted by human and animal excreta). Wash hands after handling animals and before eating.
CryptosporidiosisConsumption of food, water or other material containing the organism CryptosporidiumSevere chronic diarrhoea, difficult to treatPrevent water being contaminated with human or animal excreta. Wash hands after handling animals and before eating.
Congo FeverContact with the blood of infected animals or bites by the tick Hyalomma spp., or infected peopleMuscle pains, fever, severe haemorrhage under the skin and internally; highly fatal.Do not crush ticks with your fingernails. Use tick repellents when working in areas with high tick levels.
Pseudo Cowpox (Bovine Orf)Contact with infective nodules on cow teatsRed inflamed nodule on the handsHygiene during milking. Prevent transmission between cows.
Neuro-cysticercosisConsumption of the eggs of the pig tapeworm Taenia soliumCysts on the brain can lead to epilepsy and madness in people.Personal hygiene – wash your hands well and scrub your nails before eating.
Diamond skin disease (Erysipelas of pigs)Contact with the skin, meat or blood of infected or carrier pigsLarge painful nodule on the hands. Can also cause vegetative endocarditis (growths on the heart valves).Vaccinate pigs against Erisipelas.
 Hydatid diseaseConsumption or ingestion of the eggs of the tapeworm EchinococcusLarge cysts on the brain, lungs or in the liver of peopleDo not feed raw meat, especially cysts from sheep carcasses, to dogs.
 LeptospirosisContact with pigs or cattle infected with the disease; contact with infected waterKidney failure, jaundice and liver failure; responds well to antibiotic treatment.Control rats (they carry the disease). Test for the disease in livestock if there are abortions.
 OrfContact with sheep or goats infected with orfContagious ecthyma, red swollen areas of skin of hands or faceWash hands well and do not touch your face while working with sheep or goats.
 Q-feverInhaling dust in the kraals, contact with aborted material from cattle, sheep and goats; drinking unpasteurised milkSwollen lymphnodes and interstitial pneumoniaWear masks if working in dusty kraals; protective clothing when working with aborted foetus and uterine fluids. Pasteurise milk.
 PsittacosisInhalation of the droppings or blood of infected pigeons, parrots, ducks and turkeysSevere coughing which can result in heart failure and death if untreatedHave sufficient ventilation when working in pigeon or poultry houses. Use a face mask and gloves if doing necropsies on dead birds.
 RabiesBites by infected dogs, jackals, cattle, horses, sheep, wildlife Mania and deathVaccinate all dogs. If cattle or any other animals show symptoms, call the state veterinarian URGENTLY. If bitten, go straight to a clinic or doctor and inform the state vet.
 Rift Valley FeverMosquito bites during an outbreak, contact with blood or aborted material from infected sheep or cattleFever, retinitis with haemorrhage and edema, causing blindness. Encephalistis, liver and kidney failure. Can be fatal.Vaccinate sheep if there is an outbreak. Use protective clothing and masks if working with infected animals or carcasses. Control mosquitoes.
RingwormContact with infected animalsRound, scaley skin lesionsTreat animals with ringworm. Consult a physician if you become infected.
SalmonellosisConsumption of food, water or other material containing the organism Salmonella; contact with animals infected with SalmonellaSevere gastro-enteritis which can be fatal in the very young and the elderly. Sometimes septicaemia and organ failure.Food hygiene. Prevent contamination of food with animal faeces. Remember personal hygiene and wear protective clothing if working with sick animals or their faeces.
 Sarcoptic mangeContact with infected pigs, dogs and catsSmall red itchy areas on the skin due to infection by the mite Sarcoptes scabeiTreat and control sarcoptic mange in animals.
Tick bite feverBites by ticksBlackened area after 10 days where bitten by a tick; severe headaches.Consult a physician for treatment with antibiotics.
ToxoplasmosisConsumption of poorly cooked mutton or pork; ingestion of soil contaminated with cat faecesGranulomas in the brain of HIV positive people; abnormalities in newborn children if mothers infected while they are pregnantCook meat well. Scrub hands and nails before eating, particularly after digging in gardens.
Source: Prof CME McCrindle, Section head of Veterinary Public Health, Department of Paraclinical Sciences, at the Faculty of Veterinary Science of the University of Pretoria.

For the newcomer

Vaccination

Vaccination is a process where you inject a biological product into an animal. It is a process whereby one exposes an animal to a codified or weakened disease-causing organism. The more antibodies the animal has to fight that particular disease, the less likely it is to become infected. In many cases, an animal should be vaccinated yearly to ensure immunity against specific diseases.

The age at which a young animal is first vaccinated plays an important role in its response to vaccination. This is because the young animal is still getting a measure of immunisation from the mother’s early milk or colostrum. This is passive immunity, but it interferes with the vaccine if given too early.

  • Follow the correct route of application.
  • The cold chain must never be broken (transport to and storage of the vaccine on the farm).
  • Handling of vaccine is one of the major problems of vaccination failure. You have to keep your vaccines at a temperature of 4-8ºC, make sure that you have your sterile needles; you have your sterile cylinders, to avoid transmitting diseases from one animal to another.
  • The effectiveness of vaccines depends on the management of the specific farmer, so if a farmer has qualities of being a good manager and using sustained vaccination programmes those vaccines will be effective.

For further information please contact: OBP or Animal Health for Developing Farmers at ARC-OVR (see “Role players” heading).

Parasites and resistance

Forty percent of all animal health products sold in SA are parasiticides, ectoparasiticides or dips and pour-on’s for control of ticks and other external parasites, as well as anthelmintics for control of worms. Because they are so important to SA farmers, there is much debate about parasites developing resistance to the chemicals in these products. The truth is that resistance will always be with us. It is nature’s evolutionary response towards evading suppression. To manage resistance:

  • Never introduce new (and resistant) parasites onto your property. Always ensure that introduced animals are parasite-free before being released onto the farm by first quarantining and treating them with at least two different antelmintic groups and with one or more ectoparasitic control products (dips).
  • Always follow the manufacturer’s instructions carefully when treating animals for parasites. Do not use an overstrength product.
  • For the same reasons, never use home-made pour-on products to control ticks. The amount active ingredient needed depends on the formulation used, and there is no information on home-made formulations to make these critical decisions.
  • Know the available remedies, which groups they belong to, and consult a vet, preferably from the supplier, to advise on when to change and what remedy to use next.

Disposal of redundant dip mixtures

Plunge dips need to be cleaned after a certain number of dip cycles. The remaining dip mixture is usually a concoction of active ingredients and their metabolites. The best practice to dispose of these dip mixtures is:

  1. Pump it into drums and have it disposed of by certified hazardous waste management service providers. Some of these are EnviroServ, www.enviroserv.co.za; A-Thermal, https://athermal.co.za ; and Rapid Spill Response, https://rapidspillresponse.com.
  2. Dip mixtures can also be pumped into a plastic lined evaporation pond that is fenced off and cover with netting to keep any animals out. Once the liquid has evaporated the sludge must be collected in plastic drums and disposed of by certified hazardous waste management service providers as mentioned above.

Do not attempt to dispose of any redundant dip mixture or dip residues by pumping it into natural water bodies or onto the soil. The results will be disastrous for the environment.

Sources: Afrivet, SAAHA, ARC-OVR, Department of Agriculture, AgriTV, Gerhard H Verdoorn.

National strategy and government contact

Find the “Public Info” option at www.savc.org.za. Included here is a copy of the Veterinary And Para-Veterinary Professions Act No. 19 of 1982.

To improve delivery of veterinarian services, the Department of Agriculture has introduced measures like expanding the existing bursary scheme for veterinary studies and introducing a year’s compulsory community service (CCS) for vets after graduating.

Find Directorate documents, contact details and other information at www.nda.gov.za. Of relevance to this chapter are (i) Animal Health (ii) Veterinary Public Health, and (iii) Agriculture Inputs Control.

State Veterinary Services sponsor the testing for certain animal diseases. Please contact your nearest State veterinarian office or Provincial office for advice (find extensive details of chief director, state vets, laboratory services per province on the website). See also:

  • The detailed list of Government Veterinary Laboratories in SA at www.nda.gov.za.
  • Find details of RuVASA Veterinarians, veterinary laboratories, disease reports and more at https://ruvasa.co.za, website of the Ruminant Veterinary Association (RuVASA).
  • The “Find a SAVA vet” option under “Public resources” at www.sava.co.za.

Role players

Business Listings

The following business listings are provided for informational purposes only. Agribook does not endorse or guarantee any of the listed businesses, their products, or services.

Further reference:

Training and research

  • If you are a farmer, consider undergoing some form of Primary Animal Health Care (PAHC) training. It will certainly benefit your farming operation.
  • The ARC-Onderstepoort Veterinary Research (ARC-OVR) is part of the Livestock and Animal Health Division. Research activities at the OVR focus on the development of vaccines and diagnostic methodologies, applying the latest molecular biological techniques to prevent and control economically important diseases. The Institute promotes animal health and welfare by providing effective and diagnostic service, and vaccines against Foot-and-mouth and tick-borne diseases. The OVR is a collaborating centre for both the OIE (surveillance and control of animal diseases in Africa) and FAO (emergency preparedness for transboundary animal diseases for Africa, Helminth anthelmintic resistance and biological control for Africa, and the FAO Reference Laboratory for Arthropod transmitted viral diseases for Eastern and Southern Africa which includes seven reference laboratories for economically important viral diseases). Short training courses at ARC-OVR include tick identification and zoonotic disease.
  • Paradys Experimental Farm forms the basis of plans to establish a veterinary training programme at the University of the Free State similar to what is offered at the University of Pretoria.
  • A Faculty of Veterinary Science has also been approved for the University of Fort Hare. The new faculty will welcome 30 students in the 2027/28 academic year.
  • Companies involved support and do research on various aspects of animal health, both individually, at their own research facilities, and also collectively on aspects of importance to the farming community such as: tick resistance to ectoparasiticides worm resistance to endoparsiticides microbial resistance to antibiotics environmental issues such as dung beetle-and oxpecker compatible remedies.
  • Health & Welfare Sector Education and Training Authority (HWSETA) – Agriculture and its related outputs are very dependent on veterinary science. See www.hwseta.org.za.
  • Find the full list of universities and agricultural colleges on the “Agricultural Education & Training” page.
  • Included in the South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA)-accredited qualifications are ones like “Observe and inspect animal health” and “Explain the prevention and treatment of animal diseases”.
  • SAAHA runs basic  training programmes.

Websites and publications

Du Preez J & Malan F. 2024. Vaccines and Immunisation of Farm Animals.  Pretoria: Design Biologix. The book is also available in Afrikaans.

Several publications like A Guide to Animal Diseases in South Africa: Game, The Cattle Health Handbook (Heather Smith Thomas), Ask the Vet – What cattle farmers should know (Faffa Malan), Illustrated guide to identification of African tick species (Latif, A.A.) and Vaccines and Immunisation of Farm Animals (Du Preez, Malan) are available from Kejafa Knowledge Works. Find these at www.kejafa.com.

The Best practice reference manual for wool sheep farming in South Africa, brought out by the National Wool Growers Association (NWGA) includes useful notes on health and disease management. Find the document on www.nwga.co.za.

The ARC-OVR Supply Shop has a number of publications, CDs, DVDs and other media for sale.

The following publications (mostly “Info paks”) are available at www.nda.gov.za:

  • Abortions and causes of death in newborn sheep and goats
  • Acaricide resistance
  • Acaricide resistance (Xhosa)
  • Anthrax
  • Anthrax – frequently asked questions)
  • Anthrax (Zulu)
  • Are my chickens healthy?
  • Are my pigs healthy?
  • Asemhalingsiektes by hoenders (Afrikaans)
  • Avian influenza (‘bird flu’)
  • Avian influenza (‘bird flu’) (Zulu)
  • Avian influenza (‘bird flu’) (Swati)
  • Botulism
  • Brucellosis
  • Brucellosis and tuberculosis
  • Campylobacteriosis
  • Cattle (bovine) tuberculosis
  • Clostridial diseases
  • Clostridial diseases (AJ Olivier)
  • Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever
  • Common and important diseases of cattle
  • Common diseases of small pig herds
  • Common and important diseases of sheep and goats
  • Community medicine stores
  • Condition scoring of cattle
  • Congo fever
  • Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever
  • Diarrhoea in cattle
  • Diarrhoea in sheep and goats
  • Die verskil tussen tussen inenting en behandeling
  • Disease prevention in chickens
  • Disease prevention in chickens (Afrikaans)
  • Diseases shared by wildlife and livestock
  • Dose your animals
  • Dringende inenting van diere
  • External parasites of cattle
  • External parasites of chickens
  • Feather, skin and leg conditions in chickens
  • Feather, skin and leg conditions in chickens (Afrikaans)
  • Foot and Mouth Disease (also available in Tsonga and Venda)
  • Foot-and-mouth disease
  • Foot-and-mouth disease (description)
  • Foot-and-mouth disease: consumer concerns
  • Frequency of tick control in cattle
  • Giving an injection
  • Goats vaccination programme
  • Hints for dipping sheep
  • Hondsdolheid ‘n dodelike siekte
  • Horsesickness
  • How medicine should be used
  • Important facts you should know about FMD (also available in Tsonga and Venda)
  • Internal parasites
  • Johne’s disease
  • Livestock: the effect of ticks on animals
  • Lumpy-skin disease
  • Lungsickness (Contagious bovine pleuropneumonia)
  • Mad Cow Disease
  • Methods of tick control in cattle
  • Miltsiekte (Afrikaans)
  • My cow is unable to stand up!
  • Nervous conditions in chickens
  • Newcastle disease
  • Parasitic cysts and lesions in organs
  • Parasitic cysts and lesions in meat
  • Parasitic skin diseases of dogs
  • Parasitic skin diseases of dogs (Zulu)
  • Parasitic skin diseases of dogs (Tswana)
  • Poultry diseases
  • Prevent disease in goats and sheep (Turton)
  • Rabies – a killer disease
  • Rabies (the law says)
  • Rabies (English-Tswana)
  • Rabies (English-Xhosa)
  • Rabies (English-Zulu)
  • Rabies Guide for the medical, veterinary and allied professions
  • Respiratory diseases in chickens
  • Respiratory diseases in goats and sheep (Mashishi)
  • Senuweetoestande by kuikens (Afrikaans)
  • Tapeworm (Xhosa)
  • The difference between vaccination and treatment
  • The difference between vaccine, antibiotics and antiparasiticides
  • The effects of ticks on animals
  • Theileriosis
  • Tick-borne diseases in ruminants
  • Udder and teat lesions

Landbou.com, the electronic arm of the magazine Landbouweekblad, runs a question and answer veterinary column. Find it at www.landbou.com/landbou/kundiges

Diseases and Parasites of Sheep and Goats in South Africa (Dr Pamela Oberem, Dr Peter Oberem and Dr Johan van Rensburg) provides easy-to-understand information on management, disease recognition, preventative measures and treatment. Call Afrivet at 012 817 9060. Also available are the following:

  • Diseases and Parasites of Cattle, Sheep and Goats.
  • A guide to animal diseases in South Africa: Horses, Donkeys and Mules.
  • A guide to animal diseases in South Africa: Dogs and Cats.
  • Vaccination for the control of animal diseases in Southern Africa.
  • A guide to animal diseases in South Africa: Game.
  • Ticks and Tick-borne Diseases: Monograph 1. Ixodid ticks of major economic importance and their distribution in South Africa
  • Ticks and Tick-borne Diseases: monograph 2. Illustrated guide to identification of African tick species.
  • Ticks and Tick-borne Diseases: monograph 3. Tick-borne diseases in Southern Africa
  • Ticks and Tick-borne Diseases: monograph 4. Control of ticks and tick-borne diseases in Southern Africa

See also the Afrivet Plan A website, www.afrivetplana.co.za, for an interactive calendar, easy-to-use wheel programme – and more.

The Journal of the South African Veterinary Association (JSAVA) is published by the South African Veterinary Association and AOSIS OpenJournals. Visit www.jsava.co.za.

Publications available from SAAHA on request (Contact details under previous heading):

  • Guidelines for the Responsible Use of Crop Protection and Animal Health Products (Also in Afrikaans)
  • Basic Guidelines for the Responsible Use of Crop Protection and Animal Health Products. English and Afrikaans – ideal for farmers.
  • Guide to the Treatment of Poisoning by Chemicals – a must for the medical profession.

Using Efficient Microbes products decreases the farmer’s dependence on antibiotics and medicines. Read more at www.efficientmicrobes.co.za.

www.vetproductsonline.co.za – an online animal product store.

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