Biosecurity

Introduction

People don’t think of the far-reaching consequences of an action like bringing fruit illegally across the border, or of buying unmarked pigs at an auction. It might be out of innocence and ignorance that biosecurity measures are flouted, but the revenue lost can amount to billions of rand which can bring a whole sector to its knees – and threaten the livelihoods of thousands.

Biosecurity analyses and manages risks in the sectors of food safety, animal and plant life and health, including the associated environmental risk. It encompasses the policy and regulatory frameworks.

Investing in its capacity to control disease and to protect its food systems is in a country’s interest. Biosecurity is a national and regional issue.

Biosecurity and the livestock farmer

For detailed and specific information about applying biosecurity principles to your operation, consult your veterinarian or the relevant commodity/trade association e.g. the Red Meat Producers Organisation (RPO) and National Emergent Red Meat Producer Organisation (NERPO), whose notes on precautionary measures to protect your herd against diseases acquired because of external contact can be found here.

While developing and maintaining biosecurity is difficult, it is the cheapest, most effective means of disease control available, and no disease prevention programme will work without it.

Infectious diseases can be spread between operations by:

  • the introduction of diseased cattle or healthy cattle incubating disease
  • introduction of healthy cattle who have recovered from disease but are now carriers
  • vehicles, equipment, clothing and shoes of visitors or employees who move between herds
  • contact with inanimate objects that are contaminated with disease organisms
  • carcasses of dead cattle that have not been disposed of properly
  • feedstuffs, especially high risk feedstuff which could be contaminated with faeces
  • impure water (surface drainage water, etc.)
  • manure handling and aerosolised manure and dust
  • non-livestock (horses, dogs, cats, wildlife, rodents, birds and insects)

Biosecurity has three major components: Isolation, Traffic Control, Sanitation.

  1. Isolation: The most important step in disease control is to minimise commingling and movement of cattle.
  2. Traffic control includes traffic onto your operation and traffic patterns within your operation. It is important to understand traffic includes more than vehicles. All animals and people must be considered. Animals other than cattle include dogs, cats, horses, wildlife, rodents and birds.
  3. Sanitation addresses the disinfection of materials, people and equipment entering the operation and the cleanliness of the people and equipment on the operation.
Source: adapted from Biosecurity Basics for Cattle Operations and Good Management Practices (GMP) for Controlling Infectious Diseases, published by Institute of Agricultural and Natural Resources, University of Nebraska-Lincoln Extension

Zoonoses: diseases of livestock that can affect humans

The word zoonosis has its origins in the Greek zoon, meaning animal, and nosos meaning disease. In 1959, the World Health Organisation Expert Committee on Zoonoses, defined zoonoses as “those diseases and infections that are naturally transmitted between vertebrate animals and man”.

Zoonotic diseases are an occupational hazard for all those who work with livestock, including farmers and their workers, veterinary staff, those in the abattoir and dairy industries and, ultimately, the consumers of animal products like meat, dairy products and eggs.

Preventing the transfer of zoonotic diseases from animals to humans rests on three pillars. The first of these is keeping animals healthy through good management, vaccinations and parasite control. The second pillar is personal hygiene and attention to healthy working conditions in the livestock industry – particularly details like the provision of good ventilation and accessible ablution blocks. The third pillar is food hygiene, maintaining a cold chain and the inspection and quality control of animal products from the farm to the table. If these three pillars are kept in place, the chance or risk of catching any disease from an animal is very low – you are much more likely to catch diseases from other people! Prevention is better than cure; however, if you suspect you have a zoonotic disease, it is advisable to consult a medical practitioner as soon as possible.

Further details on the symptoms and treatment of zoonotic diseases are obtainable on the World Health Organisation (www.who.int) and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (www.cdc.gov) websites.

The following table, used courtesy of Prof CME McCrindle (Faculty of Veterinary Science of the University of Pretoria), summarises the most important zoonotic diseases of livestock and gives some idea of how to prevent them being transmitted.

DiseaseHow it is transmitted Symptoms in humansPrevention
AnthraxContact with blood, skins or meat of diseased cattle, sheep, goats and pigsSkin, lung and intestinal forms; may be fatal if untreated.Vaccinate cattle every year. Notify state vet if there are sudden deaths in livestock. Do not slaughter and eat sick animals.
Avian InfluenzaContact with diseased birds infected with the virulent strainInfluenza-like symptoms; often fatal in peopleDo not handle dead birds of any species without gloves, face-masks and protective clothing.
BotulismConsumption of meat or other foods contaminated with the spores or toxins of Clostridium botulinumFlaccid paralysis of muscles; it progresses until the patient cannot sit or stand, and eventually is unable to breathe.Vaccinate cattle. Food hygiene and cooking at high temperatures.
Bovine brucellosisInhalation of or contact with blood or birth fluids of infected cattle; drinking unpasteurised milkAcute symptoms look like malaria or influenza; chronic intermittent fever, joint problemsVaccination of heifers, regular testing of cattle herd. Hygienic handling of aborted material or afterbirths. Pasteurise milk.
Bovine tuberculosis and human tuberculosisInhalation of droplets from coughing cows; drinking unpasteurised milkNodules on the skin and in the lymphnodes; chronic weight loss, severe cough with bloody phlegmWorkers in dairies must be checked regularly for TB. Dairy cattle must be tested regularly for TB. Pasteurise milk.
 BSEConsumtion of brain, lymphnodes or spinal tissue of affected cattleChronic nervous symptoms that become worse; always fatal as it is incurablePrevent the disease coming into South Africa. Test cattle that die after showing nervous symptoms.
 Bacterial wound infectionsCuts and wounds that are exposed to animal manure, pus and would infections of animalsAbscesses, gangrene and “blood poisoning”Wash and disinfect all wounds immediately using running water. Cover wounds if working with animals, meat or milk.
 Bubonic plagueBites by rat fleas “Bubon” forms in inguinal lymphnode, fatal pneumonia Rat control. Control fleas on animals – including goats, dogs and cats.
 ColibaccilosisConsumption of food, water or other material containing the organism Escherichia coliSevere acute gastroenteritis; if caused by Ecoli serotype 0157, severe bloody gastro-enteritis and organ failureFood hygiene. Clean drinking water (prevent it being polluted by human and animal excreta). Wash hands after handling animals and before eating.
CryptosporidiosisConsumption of food, water or other material containing the organism CryptosporidiumSevere chronic diarrhoea, difficult to treatPrevent water being contaminated with human or animal excreta. Wash hands after handling animals and before eating.
Congo FeverContact with the blood of infected animals or bites by the tick Hyalomma spp., or infected peopleMuscle pains, fever, severe haemorrhage under the skin and internally; highly fatal.Do not crush ticks with your fingernails. Use tick repellents when working in areas with high tick levels.
Pseudo Cowpox (Bovine Orf)Contact with infective nodules on cow teatsRed inflamed nodule on the handsHygiene during milking. Prevent transmission between cows.
Neuro-cysticercosisConsumption of the eggs of the pig tapeworm Taenia soliumCysts on the brain can lead to epilepsy and madness in people.Personal hygiene – wash your hands well and scrub your nails before eating.
Diamond skin disease (Erysipelas of pigs)Contact with the skin, meat or blood of infected or carrier pigsLarge painful nodule on the hands. Can also cause vegetative endocarditis (growths on the heart valves).Vaccinate pigs against Erisipelas.
 Hydatid diseaseConsumption or ingestion of the eggs of the tapeworm EchinococcusLarge cysts on the brain, lungs or in the liver of peopleDo not feed raw meat, especially cysts from sheep carcasses, to dogs.
 LeptospirosisContact with pigs or cattle infected with the disease; contact with infected waterKidney failure, jaundice and liver failure; responds well to antibiotic treatment.Control rats (they carry the disease). Test for the disease in livestock if there are abortions.
 OrfContact with sheep or goats infected with orfContagious ecthyma, red swollen areas of skin of hands or faceWash hands well and do not touch your face while working with sheep or goats.
 Q-feverInhaling dust in the kraals, contact with aborted material from cattle, sheep and goats; drinking unpasteurised milkSwollen lymphnodes and interstitial pneumoniaWear masks if working in dusty kraals; protective clothing when working with aborted foetus and uterine fluids. Pasteurise milk.
 PsittacosisInhalation of the droppings or blood of infected pigeons, parrots, ducks and turkeysSevere coughing which can result in heart failure and death if untreatedHave sufficient ventilation when working in pigeon or poultry houses. Use a face mask and gloves if doing necropsies on dead birds.
 RabiesBites by infected dogs, jackals, cattle, horses, sheep, wildlife Mania and deathVaccinate all dogs. If cattle or any other animals show symptoms, call the state veterinarian URGENTLY. If bitten, go straight to a clinic or doctor and inform the state vet.
 Rift Valley FeverMosquito bites during an outbreak, contact with blood or aborted material from infected sheep or cattleFever, retinitis with haemorrhage and edema, causing blindness. Encephalistis, liver and kidney failure. Can be fatal.Vaccinate sheep if there is an outbreak. Use protective clothing and masks if working with infected animals or carcasses. Control mosquitoes.
RingwormContact with infected animalsRound, scaley skin lesionsTreat animals with ringworm. Consult a physician if you become infected.
SalmonellosisConsumption of food, water or other material containing the organism Salmonella; contact with animals infected with SalmonellaSevere gastro-enteritis which can be fatal in the very young and the elderly. Sometimes septicaemia and organ failure.Food hygiene. Prevent contamination of food with animal faeces. Remember personal hygiene and wear protective clothing if working with sick animals or their faeces.
 Sarcoptic mangeContact with infected pigs, dogs and catsSmall red itchy areas on the skin due to infection by the mite Sarcoptes scabeiTreat and control sarcoptic mange in animals.
Tick bite feverBites by ticksBlackened area after 10 days where bitten by a tick; severe headaches.Consult a physician for treatment with antibiotics.
ToxoplasmosisConsumption of poorly cooked mutton or pork; ingestion of soil contaminated with cat faecesGranulomas in the brain of HIV positive people; abnormalities in newborn children if mothers infected while they are pregnantCook meat well. Scrub hands and nails before eating, particularly after digging in gardens.
Source: Prof CME McCrindle, Section head of Veterinary Public Health, Department of Paraclinical Sciences, at the Faculty of Veterinary Science of the University of Pretoria.

National strategy and government contact

Biosecurity legislation includes:

  • Agricultural Pests Act of 1983 (Act No. 36 of 1983)
  • The Animal Diseases Act 1984 (Act No. 35 of 1984)
  • Animal Health Act, 2002 (Act No.7 Of 2002)
  • Animal Improvement Act, 1988 (Act No. 62 of 1988)
  • Fertilizers, Farm Feeds, Agricultural Remedies and Stock Remedies Act of 1947 (Act No. 36 of 1947)
  • Meat Safety Act of 2000 (Act No. 40 of 2000)
  • Medicines and Related Substances Control Act of 1965 (Act No. 101 of 1965)
  • Plant Improvement Act, 1973 (Act No. 53 of 1973)
  • Veterinary and Para-Veterinary Professions Act of 1982 (Act No. 19 of 1982)
  • Border Management Authority Act, 2020 (Act No. 2 of 2020)
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… [T]he single biggest enabler of growth will be South Africa’s ability to manage animal disease outbreaks as well as maintain adequate biosecurity standards fit for international trade. The world over, countries with functioning animal disease management systems have consistently enjoyed market access (and higher prices), while those that lack such systems have lost markets.

Source: Bureau for Food & Agricultural Policy 2024-2033 Baseline

                                ***

Department of Agriculture, Land Reform and Rural Development (DALRRD)

Find documents, forms, contact details for port, regional and national offices, and information on the different directorates on the website www.dalrrd.gov.za.

  • Directorate: Plant Health This Directorate manages all risks associated with plants and plant products to protect South African agriculture from quarantine and regulated pests. The National Plant Protection Organisation of South Africa (NPPOZA) can be reached care of this directorate.
  • Directorate: Animal Health Find the lists of contacts and information under “Food and veterinary services” (on the “Old website” option). This directorate controls and certifies the health status of animals/animal products for import/export, including the provision of quarantine facilities. It negotiates protocols on the import and export of animal/animal products.
  • Directorate: Veterinary Public Health State Veterinary Services sponsor the testing for certain animal diseases. Please contact your nearest State veterinarian office or Provincial office for advice (contact details on the “Animal health” page). For a detailed list of Government Veterinary Laboratories in SA visit www.dalrrd.gov.za.
  • Directorate: Inspection Services For information on the department’s inspection services and procedures, and contact details for offices nationwide are on the website.
  • Agricultural Produce Agents Council (APAC) www.apacweb.org.za Refer to Biosecurity Rules for Livestock Agents (Gazetted 13 November 2020) – No 43900 – Board Notice 135 of 200.
  • The statutory levies for the different sectors address, amongst other issues, the health and hygiene systems in those sectors. Visit the National Agricultural Marketing Council (NAMC) website at www.namc.co.za.

 Find the list of provincial contacts for state veterinarians on the “Animal health” page.

Department of Science and Innovation (DSI)

  • The Technology Innovation Agency (TIA), an entity of the DSI, funded the development of a point-of-care (POC) diagnostic test kit for the early detection of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) in livestock that can be used in remote and rural areas. This innovation was developed by the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) and was licensed to a start-up, TokaBio.
  • National Biosecurity Hub launched (October 2022) in collaboration with the University of Pretoria

Department of Health

Department of Home Affairs (DHA)

Role players

Note: Click to expand the headings below. To get a free listing on our website like the ones below, visit here for more information or place your order here. Disclaimer: The role player listings are not vetted by this website.

South Africa Animal Health Association (SAAHA) – www.saaha.co.za SAAHA is an association of the majority of the responsible manufacturers and suppliers of animal health products, and through its training and accreditation of member’s sales personnel it strives to ensure that farmers and other end users are at all times provided with a professional and efficient service.
National Animal Health Forum (NAHF) – https://nahf.co.za The NAHF represents the different livestock sectors, and exists to liaise with government on biosecurity and other livestock-related issues.
National Animal Health Forum (NAHF) – https://nahf.co.za The NAHF represents the different livestock sectors, and exists to liaise with government on biosecurity and other livestock-related issues.
Ruminant Veterinary Association of South Africa (RuVASA) – http://ruvasa.co.za
Agri Inspec – www.mpo.co.za/agriinspec

Further reference:

  • Find the various commodity representatives on the relevant Agribook pages e.g. Poultry Disease Management Agency on the poultry page, South African Ostrich Business Chamber (SAOBC) on the Ostrich page etc. All of these – as well as associations like LWCC, RuVASA, SAVA and SAVC – are stakeholders in the National Animal Health Forum (NAHF).

Training and research

  • Find details of the institutions and universities on the “Animal health” page.
  • Included in the South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA)-accredited qualifications are ones like “Observe and inspect animal health” and “Explain the prevention and treatment of animal diseases”. Find the Qualifications and Learning Material option at www.agriseta.co.za.

Companies

  • Animal health companies manufacture vaccines and promotes biosecurity within the continent. Find their details on the “Animal health” page.

Government

Websites and publications

  • See the websites of umbrella associations involved to find biosecurity and disease management guidelines.
  • For the monthly report on livestock disease trends as informally reported by veterinarians belonging to the Ruminant Veterinary Association of South Africa (RuVASA), a group of the South African Veterinary Association, see www.ruvasa.co.za.
  • Numerous Info Paks available from DALRRD are listed on our Animal health page. Examples of these publications are Foot and Mouth Disease (also available in Tsonga and Venda), Important facts you should know about FMD (also available in Tsonga and Venda), Clostridial diseases, Animal health: Cattle (bovine) tuberculosis, Poultry: Disease prevention in chickens, RABIES Guide for the Medical, Veterinary and Allied Professions etc. They can also be viewed on the Directorate Animal Health web pages at www.dalrrd.gov.za.
  • Two further Info Paks of particular relevance to this page are “Importation of Animals and Animal Products” and “Procedures to be followed when importing plants and plant products into South Africa”. These can also be viewed at www.dalrrd.gov.za.
  • Find the links on the DALRRD Food and Veterinary Services pages at www.dalrrd.gov.za (take the “Old website” option). Under “Epidemiology” find options like include Disease Maps, Disease Status, Disease Database, Disease Reporting Forms etc.
  • Find the Agriculture parliamentary committee meeting of December 2, 2024 which dealt with the Onderstepoort Biological Products (OBP) briefing on the status of its Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) project. See at https://pmg.org.za/committee-meeting/40037.
  • Visit https://croplife.co.za for FAW management protocols
  • Find the Pork 360 Consumer Assurance and Traceability Standards for Farms and other information at https://pork360.co.za.
  • Find the presentation “Monitoring biosecurity for the Grain Value chain” by Dr Marinda Visser (Grain SA) in 2017 at www.agbizgrain.co.za/uploads/documents/Events/Mini%20Symposium%202017/Marinda%20Visser,%20Grain%20SA.pdf
  • See the “Websites & publications” heading on the “Animal health” page.
  • Read about import and export procedures at www.services.gov.za.

Some articles

International

 

Regional Plant Protection Organisations (RPPOs):

  • APPPC, Asia And Pacific Plant Protection Commission – www.apppc.org
  • CA, the Andean Community (South America) – www.comunidadandina.org
  • COSAVE, Bienvenidos al Comité de Sanidad Vegetal del Cono Sur (South American countries around Brazil) – www.cosave.org
  • EPPO, European And Mediterranean Plant Protection Organisation – www.eppo.int 
  • IAPSC, Inter African Phytosanitary Council of the African Union – www.au-iapsc.org
  • NAPPO, North American Plant Protection Organization – www.nappo.org
  • OIRSA, Organismo Internacional Regional De Sanidad Agropecuaria (South American countries near the Panama canal: Mexico, Nicaragua, El Salvador etc) – www.oirsa.org

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